COMMENTARY ON THE LAW
Immunological mechanisms involved in obesity and their role in metabolic syndrome
Marta Góralska 1 , Monika Majewska-Szczepanik 2 , Marian Szczepanik 21. Zakład Fizjologii Medycznej, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Collegium Medicum, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu
2. Katedra Biologii Medycznej, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Collegium Medicum, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu
Published: 2015-12-28
GICID: 01.3001.0009.6609
Available language versions: en pl
Issue: Postepy Hig Med Dosw 2015; 69 : 1384-1404
Abstract
In the past 50 years, the occurrence of human obesity has risen dramatically across the globe. The WHO reported that at least 1.9 billion (1.9 × 109) adults are overweight and 600 million are obese, and the numbers are expected to rise dramatically in the future without intervention. The recent increase in human obesity is caused by increased energy intake and reduced energy expenditure that results in a massive increase in adipose tissue, which is generally harmful to our health. Indeed, the increase in human obesity is strongly associated with an increase in many diseases such as type 2 diabetes (T2D), biliary disease, cardiovascular disease, hepatic steatosis, airway disease, neurodegeneration and certain cancers. The metabolic and immune systems are closely linked and functionally dependent. As a result, excessive nutrient consumption associated with obesity can be recognized as a harmful, stress-inducing biological event by innate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). This activates inflammatory and stress responses in various metabolic tissues, leading to the chronic low-grade inflammation called metabolic inflammation or “metainflammation”. Adipose tissue is mainly composed of adipocytes, although other cell types contribute to its growth and function, including pre-adipocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, fibroblasts and vascular cells. Obesity can result in profound changes in the cell composition of fat tissue and can lead to the modulation of individual cell phenotypes. Many factors are involved in development of metainflammation, including hypoxia of adipocytes, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, activation of inflammasomes, adipocyte death, activation of TLR and abnormal gut flora.
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Lipid Res., 2008; 49: 1562-1568 57 Netea M.G., Joosten L.A., Lewis E., Jensen D.R., Voshol P.J., KullbergB.J., Tack C.J., van Krieken H., Kim S.H., Stalenhoef A.F., van de LooF.A., Verschueren I., Pulawa L., Akira S., Eckel R.H. i wsp.: Deficiencyof interleukin-18 in mice leads to hyperphagia, obesity and insulinresistance. Nat. Med., 2006; 12: 650-656 58 Nishimura S., Manabe I., Nagasaki M., Eto K., Yamashita H.,Ohsugi M., Otsu M., Hara K., Ueki K., Sugiura S., Yoshimura K., KadowakiT., Nagai R.: CD8+ effector T cells contribute to macrophagerecruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. Nat. Med.,2009; 15: 914-920 59 Odegaard J.I., Chawla A.: Alternative macrophage activation andmetabolism. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2011; 6: 275-297 60 Odegaard J.I., Ricardo-Gonzalez R.R., Goforth M.H., Morel C.R.,Subramanian V., Mukundan L., Red Eagle A., Vats D., Brombacher F.,Ferrante A.W., Chawla A.: Macrophage-specific PPARγ controls alternativeactivation and improves insulin resistance. Nature, 2007;447: 1116-1120 61 Oh D.Y., Olefsky J.M.: Wnt fans the flames in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 397-398 62 Ohashi K., Parker J.L., Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Vita J.A., Gokce N.,Pedersen A.A., Kalthoff C., Tullin S., Sams A., Summer R., Walsh K.:Adiponectin promotes macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatoryphenotype. J. Biol. Chem., 2010; 285: 6153-6160 63 Oike Y., Tabata M.: Angiopoietin-like proteins – potential therapeutictargets for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.Circ. J., 2009; 73: 2192-2197 64 Oita R.C., Ferdinando D., Wilson S., Bunce C., Mazzatti D.J.: Visfatininduces oxidative stress in differentiated C2C12 myotubes in anAkt – and MAPK-independent, NFκB-dependent manner. PflugersArch., 2010; 459: 619-630 65 Olefsky J.M., Glass C.K.: Macrophages, inflammation, and insulinresistance. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2010; 72: 219-246 66 Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M., Zahorska-Markiewicz B.: Obesityas inflammatory disease. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 249-257 67 Ost A., Danielsson A., Lidén M., Eriksson U., Nystrom F.H., StrålforsP.: Retinol-binding protein-4 attenuates insulin-induced phosphorylationof IRS1 and ERK1/2 in primary human adipocytes. FASEB J.,2007; 21: 3696-3704 68 Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Ohashi K., Oshima Y., Gokce N., Shibata R.,Akasaki Y., Shimono A., Walsh K.: Sfrp5 is an anti-inflammatory adipokinethat modulates metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 454-457 69 Ouchi N., Kihara S., Funahashi T., Nakamura T., Nishida M., KumadaM., Okamoto Y., Ohashi K., Nagaretani H., Kishida K., NishizawaH., Maeda N., Kobayashi H., Hiraoka H., Matsuzawa Y.: Reciprocal associationof C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream andadipose tissue. Circulation, 2003; 107: 671-674 70 Ouchi N., Parker J.L., Lugus J.J., Walsh K.: Adipokines in inflammationand metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2011; 11: 85-97 71 Pacholczyk M., Ferenc T., Kowalski J.: The metabolic syndrome.Part II: its mechanisms of development and its complications. PostępyHig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 543-558 72 Park H., Li Z., Yang X.O., Chang S.H., Nurieva R., Wang Y.H., WangY., Hood L., Zhu Z., Tian Q., Dong C.: A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells
Google Scholar - 37. Kiguchi N., Maeda T., Kobayashi Y., Fukazawa Y., Kishioka S.: Leptinenhances CC-chemokine ligand expression in cultured murinemacrophage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2009; 384: 311-315 38 Kim J.Y., van de Wall E., Laplante M., Azzara A., Trujillo M.E., HofmannS.M., Schraw T., Durand J.L., Li H., Li G., Jelicks L.A., Mehler M.F.,Hui D.Y., Deshaies Y., Shulman G.I., Schwartz G.J., Scherer P.E.: Obesity–associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion ofadipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest., 2007; 117: 2621-2637 39 Klöting N., Graham T.E., Berndt J., Kralisch S., Kovacs P., Wason C.J.,Fasshauer M., Schön M.R., Stumvoll M., Blüher M., Kahn B.B.: Serumretinol-binding protein is more highly expressed in visceral than insubcutaneous adipose tissue and is a marker of intra-abdominal fatmass. Cell Metab., 2007; 6: 79-87 40 Könner A.C., Brüning J.C.: Toll-like receptors: linking inflammationto metabolism. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2011; 22: 16-23 41 Laudes M.: Role of WNT signalling in the determination of humanmesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J. Mol. Endocrinol.,2011; 46: R65-R72 42 Law I.K., Xu A., Lam K.S., Berger T., Mak T.W., Vanhoutte P.M., LiuJ.T., Sweeney G., Zhou M., Yang B., Wang Y.: Lipocalin-2 deficiencyattenuates insulin resistance associated with aging and obesity. Diabetes,2010; 59: 872-882 43 Ley R.E., Bäckhed F., Turnbaugh P., Lozupone C.A., Knight R.D.,Gordon J.I.: Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2005; 102: 11070-11075 44 Ley R.E., Turnbaugh P.J., Klein S., Gordon J.I.: Microbial ecology:human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006; 444:1022-1023 45 Lin Y., Berg A.H., Iyengar P., Lam T.K., Giacca A., Combs T.P., RajalaM.W., Du X., Rollman B., Li W., Hawkins M., Barzilai N., Rhodes C.J.,Fantus I.G., Brownlee M., Scherer P.E.: The hyperglycemia-inducedinflammatory response in adipocytes: the role of reactive oxygenspecies. J. Biol. Chem., 2005; 280: 4617-4626 46 Liu J., Divoux A., Sun J., Zhang J., Clément K., Glickman J.N., SukhovaG.K., Wolters P.J., Du J., Gorgun C.Z., Doria A., Libby P., Blumberg R.S.,Kahn B.B., Hotamisligil G.S., Shi G.P.: Genetic deficiency and pharmacologicalstabilization of mast cells reduce diet-induced obesity anddiabetes in mice. Nat. Med., 2009; 15: 940-945 47 Liu L.S., Spelleken M., Röhrig K., Hauner H., Eckel J.: Tumor necrosisfactor-alpha acutely inhibits insulin signaling in human adipocytes:implication of the p80 tumor necrosis factor receptor. Diabetes,1998; 47: 515-522 48 Lord G.M., Matarese G., Howard J.K., Baker R.J., Bloom S.R., LechlerR.I.: Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reversesstarvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature, 1998; 394: 897-901 49 Lukens J., Dixit V.D., Kanneganti T.D.: Inflammasome activationin obesity-related inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. Discov.Med., 2011; 12: 65-74 50 Lumeng C.N., Bodzin J.L., Saltiel A.R.: Obesity induces a phenotypicswitch in adipose tissue macrophage polarization. J. Clin. Invest.,2007; 117: 175-184 51 Maeda N., Shimomura I., Kishida K., Nishizawa H., Matsuda M.,Nagaretani H., Furuyama N., Kondo H., Takahashi M., Arita Y., KomuroR., Ouchi N., Kihara S., Tochino Y., Okutomi K. i wsp.: Diet-inducedinsulin resistance in mice lacking adiponectin/ACRP30. Nat. Med.,2002; 8: 731-737 52 Majewska M., Szczepanik M.: The role of Toll-like receptors (TLR)in innate and adaptive immune responses and their function in immuneresponse regulation. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2006; 60: 52-63 53 Martinon F., Chen X., Lee A.H., Glimcher L.H.: TLR activation ofthe transcription factor XBP1 regulates innate immune responses inmacrophages. Nat. Immunol., 2010; 11: 411-418 54 Martín-Romero C., Santos-Alvarez J., Goberna R., Sánchez-MargaletV.: Human leptin enhances activation and proliferation of humancirculating T lymphocytes. Cell. Immunol., 2000; 199: 15-24 55 Maslowski K.M., Vieira A.T., Ng A., Kranich J., Sierro F., Yu D.,Schilter H.C., Rolph M.S., Mackay F., Artis D., Xavier R.J., Teixeira M.M.,Mackay C.R.: Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiotaand chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature, 2009; 461: 1282-1286 56 Murano I., Barbatelli G., Parisani V., Latini C., Muzzonigro G., CastellucciM., Cinti S.: Dead adipocytes, detected as crown-like structures,are prevalent in visceral fat depots of genetically obese mice.J. Lipid Res., 2008; 49: 1562-1568 57 Netea M.G., Joosten L.A., Lewis E., Jensen D.R., Voshol P.J., KullbergB.J., Tack C.J., van Krieken H., Kim S.H., Stalenhoef A.F., van de LooF.A., Verschueren I., Pulawa L., Akira S., Eckel R.H. i wsp.: Deficiencyof interleukin-18 in mice leads to hyperphagia, obesity and insulinresistance. Nat. Med., 2006; 12: 650-656 58 Nishimura S., Manabe I., Nagasaki M., Eto K., Yamashita H.,Ohsugi M., Otsu M., Hara K., Ueki K., Sugiura S., Yoshimura K., KadowakiT., Nagai R.: CD8+ effector T cells contribute to macrophagerecruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. Nat. Med.,2009; 15: 914-920 59 Odegaard J.I., Chawla A.: Alternative macrophage activation andmetabolism. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2011; 6: 275-297 60 Odegaard J.I., Ricardo-Gonzalez R.R., Goforth M.H., Morel C.R.,Subramanian V., Mukundan L., Red Eagle A., Vats D., Brombacher F.,Ferrante A.W., Chawla A.: Macrophage-specific PPARγ controls alternativeactivation and improves insulin resistance. Nature, 2007;447: 1116-1120 61 Oh D.Y., Olefsky J.M.: Wnt fans the flames in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 397-398 62 Ohashi K., Parker J.L., Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Vita J.A., Gokce N.,Pedersen A.A., Kalthoff C., Tullin S., Sams A., Summer R., Walsh K.:Adiponectin promotes macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatoryphenotype. J. Biol. Chem., 2010; 285: 6153-6160 63 Oike Y., Tabata M.: Angiopoietin-like proteins – potential therapeutictargets for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.Circ. J., 2009; 73: 2192-2197 64 Oita R.C., Ferdinando D., Wilson S., Bunce C., Mazzatti D.J.: Visfatininduces oxidative stress in differentiated C2C12 myotubes in anAkt – and MAPK-independent, NFκB-dependent manner. PflugersArch., 2010; 459: 619-630 65 Olefsky J.M., Glass C.K.: Macrophages, inflammation, and insulinresistance. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2010; 72: 219-246 66 Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M., Zahorska-Markiewicz B.: Obesityas inflammatory disease. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 249-257 67 Ost A., Danielsson A., Lidén M., Eriksson U., Nystrom F.H., StrålforsP.: Retinol-binding protein-4 attenuates insulin-induced phosphorylationof IRS1 and ERK1/2 in primary human adipocytes. FASEB J.,2007; 21: 3696-3704 68 Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Ohashi K., Oshima Y., Gokce N., Shibata R.,Akasaki Y., Shimono A., Walsh K.: Sfrp5 is an anti-inflammatory adipokinethat modulates metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 454-457 69 Ouchi N., Kihara S., Funahashi T., Nakamura T., Nishida M., KumadaM., Okamoto Y., Ohashi K., Nagaretani H., Kishida K., NishizawaH., Maeda N., Kobayashi H., Hiraoka H., Matsuzawa Y.: Reciprocal associationof C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream andadipose tissue. Circulation, 2003; 107: 671-674 70 Ouchi N., Parker J.L., Lugus J.J., Walsh K.: Adipokines in inflammationand metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2011; 11: 85-97 71 Pacholczyk M., Ferenc T., Kowalski J.: The metabolic syndrome.Part II: its mechanisms of development and its complications. PostępyHig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 543-558 72 Park H., Li Z., Yang X.O., Chang S.H., Nurieva R., Wang Y.H., WangY., Hood L., Zhu Z., Tian Q., Dong C.: A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells
Google Scholar - 37. Kiguchi N., Maeda T., Kobayashi Y., Fukazawa Y., Kishioka S.: Leptinenhances CC-chemokine ligand expression in cultured murinemacrophage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2009; 384: 311-315 38 Kim J.Y., van de Wall E., Laplante M., Azzara A., Trujillo M.E., HofmannS.M., Schraw T., Durand J.L., Li H., Li G., Jelicks L.A., Mehler M.F.,Hui D.Y., Deshaies Y., Shulman G.I., Schwartz G.J., Scherer P.E.: Obesity–associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion ofadipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest., 2007; 117: 2621-2637 39 Klöting N., Graham T.E., Berndt J., Kralisch S., Kovacs P., Wason C.J.,Fasshauer M., Schön M.R., Stumvoll M., Blüher M., Kahn B.B.: Serumretinol-binding protein is more highly expressed in visceral than insubcutaneous adipose tissue and is a marker of intra-abdominal fatmass. Cell Metab., 2007; 6: 79-87 40 Könner A.C., Brüning J.C.: Toll-like receptors: linking inflammationto metabolism. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2011; 22: 16-23 41 Laudes M.: Role of WNT signalling in the determination of humanmesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J. Mol. Endocrinol.,2011; 46: R65-R72 42 Law I.K., Xu A., Lam K.S., Berger T., Mak T.W., Vanhoutte P.M., LiuJ.T., Sweeney G., Zhou M., Yang B., Wang Y.: Lipocalin-2 deficiencyattenuates insulin resistance associated with aging and obesity. Diabetes,2010; 59: 872-882 43 Ley R.E., Bäckhed F., Turnbaugh P., Lozupone C.A., Knight R.D.,Gordon J.I.: Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2005; 102: 11070-11075 44 Ley R.E., Turnbaugh P.J., Klein S., Gordon J.I.: Microbial ecology:human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006; 444:1022-1023 45 Lin Y., Berg A.H., Iyengar P., Lam T.K., Giacca A., Combs T.P., RajalaM.W., Du X., Rollman B., Li W., Hawkins M., Barzilai N., Rhodes C.J.,Fantus I.G., Brownlee M., Scherer P.E.: The hyperglycemia-inducedinflammatory response in adipocytes: the role of reactive oxygenspecies. J. Biol. Chem., 2005; 280: 4617-4626 46 Liu J., Divoux A., Sun J., Zhang J., Clément K., Glickman J.N., SukhovaG.K., Wolters P.J., Du J., Gorgun C.Z., Doria A., Libby P., Blumberg R.S.,Kahn B.B., Hotamisligil G.S., Shi G.P.: Genetic deficiency and pharmacologicalstabilization of mast cells reduce diet-induced obesity anddiabetes in mice. Nat. Med., 2009; 15: 940-945 47 Liu L.S., Spelleken M., Röhrig K., Hauner H., Eckel J.: Tumor necrosisfactor-alpha acutely inhibits insulin signaling in human adipocytes:implication of the p80 tumor necrosis factor receptor. Diabetes,1998; 47: 515-522 48 Lord G.M., Matarese G., Howard J.K., Baker R.J., Bloom S.R., LechlerR.I.: Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reversesstarvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature, 1998; 394: 897-901 49 Lukens J., Dixit V.D., Kanneganti T.D.: Inflammasome activationin obesity-related inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. Discov.Med., 2011; 12: 65-74 50 Lumeng C.N., Bodzin J.L., Saltiel A.R.: Obesity induces a phenotypicswitch in adipose tissue macrophage polarization. J. Clin. Invest.,2007; 117: 175-184 51 Maeda N., Shimomura I., Kishida K., Nishizawa H., Matsuda M.,Nagaretani H., Furuyama N., Kondo H., Takahashi M., Arita Y., KomuroR., Ouchi N., Kihara S., Tochino Y., Okutomi K. i wsp.: Diet-inducedinsulin resistance in mice lacking adiponectin/ACRP30. Nat. Med.,2002; 8: 731-737 52 Majewska M., Szczepanik M.: The role of Toll-like receptors (TLR)in innate and adaptive immune responses and their function in immuneresponse regulation. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2006; 60: 52-63 53 Martinon F., Chen X., Lee A.H., Glimcher L.H.: TLR activation ofthe transcription factor XBP1 regulates innate immune responses inmacrophages. Nat. Immunol., 2010; 11: 411-418 54 Martín-Romero C., Santos-Alvarez J., Goberna R., Sánchez-MargaletV.: Human leptin enhances activation and proliferation of humancirculating T lymphocytes. Cell. Immunol., 2000; 199: 15-24 55 Maslowski K.M., Vieira A.T., Ng A., Kranich J., Sierro F., Yu D.,Schilter H.C., Rolph M.S., Mackay F., Artis D., Xavier R.J., Teixeira M.M.,Mackay C.R.: Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiotaand chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature, 2009; 461: 1282-1286 56 Murano I., Barbatelli G., Parisani V., Latini C., Muzzonigro G., CastellucciM., Cinti S.: Dead adipocytes, detected as crown-like structures,are prevalent in visceral fat depots of genetically obese mice.J. Lipid Res., 2008; 49: 1562-1568 57 Netea M.G., Joosten L.A., Lewis E., Jensen D.R., Voshol P.J., KullbergB.J., Tack C.J., van Krieken H., Kim S.H., Stalenhoef A.F., van de LooF.A., Verschueren I., Pulawa L., Akira S., Eckel R.H. i wsp.: Deficiencyof interleukin-18 in mice leads to hyperphagia, obesity and insulinresistance. Nat. Med., 2006; 12: 650-656 58 Nishimura S., Manabe I., Nagasaki M., Eto K., Yamashita H.,Ohsugi M., Otsu M., Hara K., Ueki K., Sugiura S., Yoshimura K., KadowakiT., Nagai R.: CD8+ effector T cells contribute to macrophagerecruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. Nat. Med.,2009; 15: 914-920 59 Odegaard J.I., Chawla A.: Alternative macrophage activation andmetabolism. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2011; 6: 275-297 60 Odegaard J.I., Ricardo-Gonzalez R.R., Goforth M.H., Morel C.R.,Subramanian V., Mukundan L., Red Eagle A., Vats D., Brombacher F.,Ferrante A.W., Chawla A.: Macrophage-specific PPARγ controls alternativeactivation and improves insulin resistance. Nature, 2007;447: 1116-1120 61 Oh D.Y., Olefsky J.M.: Wnt fans the flames in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 397-398 62 Ohashi K., Parker J.L., Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Vita J.A., Gokce N.,Pedersen A.A., Kalthoff C., Tullin S., Sams A., Summer R., Walsh K.:Adiponectin promotes macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatoryphenotype. J. Biol. Chem., 2010; 285: 6153-6160 63 Oike Y., Tabata M.: Angiopoietin-like proteins – potential therapeutictargets for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.Circ. J., 2009; 73: 2192-2197 64 Oita R.C., Ferdinando D., Wilson S., Bunce C., Mazzatti D.J.: Visfatininduces oxidative stress in differentiated C2C12 myotubes in anAkt – and MAPK-independent, NFκB-dependent manner. PflugersArch., 2010; 459: 619-630 65 Olefsky J.M., Glass C.K.: Macrophages, inflammation, and insulinresistance. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2010; 72: 219-246 66 Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M., Zahorska-Markiewicz B.: Obesityas inflammatory disease. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 249-257 67 Ost A., Danielsson A., Lidén M., Eriksson U., Nystrom F.H., StrålforsP.: Retinol-binding protein-4 attenuates insulin-induced phosphorylationof IRS1 and ERK1/2 in primary human adipocytes. FASEB J.,2007; 21: 3696-3704 68 Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Ohashi K., Oshima Y., Gokce N., Shibata R.,Akasaki Y., Shimono A., Walsh K.: Sfrp5 is an anti-inflammatory adipokinethat modulates metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 454-457 69 Ouchi N., Kihara S., Funahashi T., Nakamura T., Nishida M., KumadaM., Okamoto Y., Ohashi K., Nagaretani H., Kishida K., NishizawaH., Maeda N., Kobayashi H., Hiraoka H., Matsuzawa Y.: Reciprocal associationof C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream andadipose tissue. Circulation, 2003; 107: 671-674 70 Ouchi N., Parker J.L., Lugus J.J., Walsh K.: Adipokines in inflammationand metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2011; 11: 85-97 71 Pacholczyk M., Ferenc T., Kowalski J.: The metabolic syndrome.Part II: its mechanisms of development and its complications. PostępyHig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 543-558 72 Park H., Li Z., Yang X.O., Chang S.H., Nurieva R., Wang Y.H., WangY., Hood L., Zhu Z., Tian Q., Dong C.: A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells
Google Scholar - 37. Kiguchi N., Maeda T., Kobayashi Y., Fukazawa Y., Kishioka S.: Leptinenhances CC-chemokine ligand expression in cultured murinemacrophage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2009; 384: 311-315 38 Kim J.Y., van de Wall E., Laplante M., Azzara A., Trujillo M.E., HofmannS.M., Schraw T., Durand J.L., Li H., Li G., Jelicks L.A., Mehler M.F.,Hui D.Y., Deshaies Y., Shulman G.I., Schwartz G.J., Scherer P.E.: Obesity–associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion ofadipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest., 2007; 117: 2621-2637 39 Klöting N., Graham T.E., Berndt J., Kralisch S., Kovacs P., Wason C.J.,Fasshauer M., Schön M.R., Stumvoll M., Blüher M., Kahn B.B.: Serumretinol-binding protein is more highly expressed in visceral than insubcutaneous adipose tissue and is a marker of intra-abdominal fatmass. Cell Metab., 2007; 6: 79-87 40 Könner A.C., Brüning J.C.: Toll-like receptors: linking inflammationto metabolism. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2011; 22: 16-23 41 Laudes M.: Role of WNT signalling in the determination of humanmesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J. Mol. Endocrinol.,2011; 46: R65-R72 42 Law I.K., Xu A., Lam K.S., Berger T., Mak T.W., Vanhoutte P.M., LiuJ.T., Sweeney G., Zhou M., Yang B., Wang Y.: Lipocalin-2 deficiencyattenuates insulin resistance associated with aging and obesity. Diabetes,2010; 59: 872-882 43 Ley R.E., Bäckhed F., Turnbaugh P., Lozupone C.A., Knight R.D.,Gordon J.I.: Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2005; 102: 11070-11075 44 Ley R.E., Turnbaugh P.J., Klein S., Gordon J.I.: Microbial ecology:human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006; 444:1022-1023 45 Lin Y., Berg A.H., Iyengar P., Lam T.K., Giacca A., Combs T.P., RajalaM.W., Du X., Rollman B., Li W., Hawkins M., Barzilai N., Rhodes C.J.,Fantus I.G., Brownlee M., Scherer P.E.: The hyperglycemia-inducedinflammatory response in adipocytes: the role of reactive oxygenspecies. J. Biol. Chem., 2005; 280: 4617-4626 46 Liu J., Divoux A., Sun J., Zhang J., Clément K., Glickman J.N., SukhovaG.K., Wolters P.J., Du J., Gorgun C.Z., Doria A., Libby P., Blumberg R.S.,Kahn B.B., Hotamisligil G.S., Shi G.P.: Genetic deficiency and pharmacologicalstabilization of mast cells reduce diet-induced obesity anddiabetes in mice. Nat. Med., 2009; 15: 940-945 47 Liu L.S., Spelleken M., Röhrig K., Hauner H., Eckel J.: Tumor necrosisfactor-alpha acutely inhibits insulin signaling in human adipocytes:implication of the p80 tumor necrosis factor receptor. Diabetes,1998; 47: 515-522 48 Lord G.M., Matarese G., Howard J.K., Baker R.J., Bloom S.R., LechlerR.I.: Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reversesstarvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature, 1998; 394: 897-901 49 Lukens J., Dixit V.D., Kanneganti T.D.: Inflammasome activationin obesity-related inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. Discov.Med., 2011; 12: 65-74 50 Lumeng C.N., Bodzin J.L., Saltiel A.R.: Obesity induces a phenotypicswitch in adipose tissue macrophage polarization. J. Clin. Invest.,2007; 117: 175-184 51 Maeda N., Shimomura I., Kishida K., Nishizawa H., Matsuda M.,Nagaretani H., Furuyama N., Kondo H., Takahashi M., Arita Y., KomuroR., Ouchi N., Kihara S., Tochino Y., Okutomi K. i wsp.: Diet-inducedinsulin resistance in mice lacking adiponectin/ACRP30. Nat. Med.,2002; 8: 731-737 52 Majewska M., Szczepanik M.: The role of Toll-like receptors (TLR)in innate and adaptive immune responses and their function in immuneresponse regulation. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2006; 60: 52-63 53 Martinon F., Chen X., Lee A.H., Glimcher L.H.: TLR activation ofthe transcription factor XBP1 regulates innate immune responses inmacrophages. Nat. Immunol., 2010; 11: 411-418 54 Martín-Romero C., Santos-Alvarez J., Goberna R., Sánchez-MargaletV.: Human leptin enhances activation and proliferation of humancirculating T lymphocytes. Cell. Immunol., 2000; 199: 15-24 55 Maslowski K.M., Vieira A.T., Ng A., Kranich J., Sierro F., Yu D.,Schilter H.C., Rolph M.S., Mackay F., Artis D., Xavier R.J., Teixeira M.M.,Mackay C.R.: Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiotaand chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature, 2009; 461: 1282-1286 56 Murano I., Barbatelli G., Parisani V., Latini C., Muzzonigro G., CastellucciM., Cinti S.: Dead adipocytes, detected as crown-like structures,are prevalent in visceral fat depots of genetically obese mice.J. Lipid Res., 2008; 49: 1562-1568 57 Netea M.G., Joosten L.A., Lewis E., Jensen D.R., Voshol P.J., KullbergB.J., Tack C.J., van Krieken H., Kim S.H., Stalenhoef A.F., van de LooF.A., Verschueren I., Pulawa L., Akira S., Eckel R.H. i wsp.: Deficiencyof interleukin-18 in mice leads to hyperphagia, obesity and insulinresistance. Nat. Med., 2006; 12: 650-656 58 Nishimura S., Manabe I., Nagasaki M., Eto K., Yamashita H.,Ohsugi M., Otsu M., Hara K., Ueki K., Sugiura S., Yoshimura K., KadowakiT., Nagai R.: CD8+ effector T cells contribute to macrophagerecruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. Nat. Med.,2009; 15: 914-920 59 Odegaard J.I., Chawla A.: Alternative macrophage activation andmetabolism. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2011; 6: 275-297 60 Odegaard J.I., Ricardo-Gonzalez R.R., Goforth M.H., Morel C.R.,Subramanian V., Mukundan L., Red Eagle A., Vats D., Brombacher F.,Ferrante A.W., Chawla A.: Macrophage-specific PPARγ controls alternativeactivation and improves insulin resistance. Nature, 2007;447: 1116-1120 61 Oh D.Y., Olefsky J.M.: Wnt fans the flames in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 397-398 62 Ohashi K., Parker J.L., Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Vita J.A., Gokce N.,Pedersen A.A., Kalthoff C., Tullin S., Sams A., Summer R., Walsh K.:Adiponectin promotes macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatoryphenotype. J. Biol. Chem., 2010; 285: 6153-6160 63 Oike Y., Tabata M.: Angiopoietin-like proteins – potential therapeutictargets for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.Circ. J., 2009; 73: 2192-2197 64 Oita R.C., Ferdinando D., Wilson S., Bunce C., Mazzatti D.J.: Visfatininduces oxidative stress in differentiated C2C12 myotubes in anAkt – and MAPK-independent, NFκB-dependent manner. PflugersArch., 2010; 459: 619-630 65 Olefsky J.M., Glass C.K.: Macrophages, inflammation, and insulinresistance. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2010; 72: 219-246 66 Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M., Zahorska-Markiewicz B.: Obesityas inflammatory disease. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 249-257 67 Ost A., Danielsson A., Lidén M., Eriksson U., Nystrom F.H., StrålforsP.: Retinol-binding protein-4 attenuates insulin-induced phosphorylationof IRS1 and ERK1/2 in primary human adipocytes. FASEB J.,2007; 21: 3696-3704 68 Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Ohashi K., Oshima Y., Gokce N., Shibata R.,Akasaki Y., Shimono A., Walsh K.: Sfrp5 is an anti-inflammatory adipokinethat modulates metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 454-457 69 Ouchi N., Kihara S., Funahashi T., Nakamura T., Nishida M., KumadaM., Okamoto Y., Ohashi K., Nagaretani H., Kishida K., NishizawaH., Maeda N., Kobayashi H., Hiraoka H., Matsuzawa Y.: Reciprocal associationof C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream andadipose tissue. Circulation, 2003; 107: 671-674 70 Ouchi N., Parker J.L., Lugus J.J., Walsh K.: Adipokines in inflammationand metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2011; 11: 85-97 71 Pacholczyk M., Ferenc T., Kowalski J.: The metabolic syndrome.Part II: its mechanisms of development and its complications. PostępyHig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 543-558 72 Park H., Li Z., Yang X.O., Chang S.H., Nurieva R., Wang Y.H., WangY., Hood L., Zhu Z., Tian Q., Dong C.: A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells
Google Scholar - 37. Kiguchi N., Maeda T., Kobayashi Y., Fukazawa Y., Kishioka S.: Leptinenhances CC-chemokine ligand expression in cultured murinemacrophage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2009; 384: 311-315 38 Kim J.Y., van de Wall E., Laplante M., Azzara A., Trujillo M.E., HofmannS.M., Schraw T., Durand J.L., Li H., Li G., Jelicks L.A., Mehler M.F.,Hui D.Y., Deshaies Y., Shulman G.I., Schwartz G.J., Scherer P.E.: Obesity–associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion ofadipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest., 2007; 117: 2621-2637 39 Klöting N., Graham T.E., Berndt J., Kralisch S., Kovacs P., Wason C.J.,Fasshauer M., Schön M.R., Stumvoll M., Blüher M., Kahn B.B.: Serumretinol-binding protein is more highly expressed in visceral than insubcutaneous adipose tissue and is a marker of intra-abdominal fatmass. Cell Metab., 2007; 6: 79-87 40 Könner A.C., Brüning J.C.: Toll-like receptors: linking inflammationto metabolism. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2011; 22: 16-23 41 Laudes M.: Role of WNT signalling in the determination of humanmesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J. Mol. Endocrinol.,2011; 46: R65-R72 42 Law I.K., Xu A., Lam K.S., Berger T., Mak T.W., Vanhoutte P.M., LiuJ.T., Sweeney G., Zhou M., Yang B., Wang Y.: Lipocalin-2 deficiencyattenuates insulin resistance associated with aging and obesity. Diabetes,2010; 59: 872-882 43 Ley R.E., Bäckhed F., Turnbaugh P., Lozupone C.A., Knight R.D.,Gordon J.I.: Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2005; 102: 11070-11075 44 Ley R.E., Turnbaugh P.J., Klein S., Gordon J.I.: Microbial ecology:human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006; 444:1022-1023 45 Lin Y., Berg A.H., Iyengar P., Lam T.K., Giacca A., Combs T.P., RajalaM.W., Du X., Rollman B., Li W., Hawkins M., Barzilai N., Rhodes C.J.,Fantus I.G., Brownlee M., Scherer P.E.: The hyperglycemia-inducedinflammatory response in adipocytes: the role of reactive oxygenspecies. J. Biol. Chem., 2005; 280: 4617-4626 46 Liu J., Divoux A., Sun J., Zhang J., Clément K., Glickman J.N., SukhovaG.K., Wolters P.J., Du J., Gorgun C.Z., Doria A., Libby P., Blumberg R.S.,Kahn B.B., Hotamisligil G.S., Shi G.P.: Genetic deficiency and pharmacologicalstabilization of mast cells reduce diet-induced obesity anddiabetes in mice. Nat. Med., 2009; 15: 940-945 47 Liu L.S., Spelleken M., Röhrig K., Hauner H., Eckel J.: Tumor necrosisfactor-alpha acutely inhibits insulin signaling in human adipocytes:implication of the p80 tumor necrosis factor receptor. Diabetes,1998; 47: 515-522 48 Lord G.M., Matarese G., Howard J.K., Baker R.J., Bloom S.R., LechlerR.I.: Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reversesstarvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature, 1998; 394: 897-901 49 Lukens J., Dixit V.D., Kanneganti T.D.: Inflammasome activationin obesity-related inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. Discov.Med., 2011; 12: 65-74 50 Lumeng C.N., Bodzin J.L., Saltiel A.R.: Obesity induces a phenotypicswitch in adipose tissue macrophage polarization. J. Clin. Invest.,2007; 117: 175-184 51 Maeda N., Shimomura I., Kishida K., Nishizawa H., Matsuda M.,Nagaretani H., Furuyama N., Kondo H., Takahashi M., Arita Y., KomuroR., Ouchi N., Kihara S., Tochino Y., Okutomi K. i wsp.: Diet-inducedinsulin resistance in mice lacking adiponectin/ACRP30. Nat. Med.,2002; 8: 731-737 52 Majewska M., Szczepanik M.: The role of Toll-like receptors (TLR)in innate and adaptive immune responses and their function in immuneresponse regulation. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2006; 60: 52-63 53 Martinon F., Chen X., Lee A.H., Glimcher L.H.: TLR activation ofthe transcription factor XBP1 regulates innate immune responses inmacrophages. Nat. Immunol., 2010; 11: 411-418 54 Martín-Romero C., Santos-Alvarez J., Goberna R., Sánchez-MargaletV.: Human leptin enhances activation and proliferation of humancirculating T lymphocytes. Cell. Immunol., 2000; 199: 15-24 55 Maslowski K.M., Vieira A.T., Ng A., Kranich J., Sierro F., Yu D.,Schilter H.C., Rolph M.S., Mackay F., Artis D., Xavier R.J., Teixeira M.M.,Mackay C.R.: Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiotaand chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature, 2009; 461: 1282-1286 56 Murano I., Barbatelli G., Parisani V., Latini C., Muzzonigro G., CastellucciM., Cinti S.: Dead adipocytes, detected as crown-like structures,are prevalent in visceral fat depots of genetically obese mice.J. Lipid Res., 2008; 49: 1562-1568 57 Netea M.G., Joosten L.A., Lewis E., Jensen D.R., Voshol P.J., KullbergB.J., Tack C.J., van Krieken H., Kim S.H., Stalenhoef A.F., van de LooF.A., Verschueren I., Pulawa L., Akira S., Eckel R.H. i wsp.: Deficiencyof interleukin-18 in mice leads to hyperphagia, obesity and insulinresistance. Nat. Med., 2006; 12: 650-656 58 Nishimura S., Manabe I., Nagasaki M., Eto K., Yamashita H.,Ohsugi M., Otsu M., Hara K., Ueki K., Sugiura S., Yoshimura K., KadowakiT., Nagai R.: CD8+ effector T cells contribute to macrophagerecruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. Nat. Med.,2009; 15: 914-920 59 Odegaard J.I., Chawla A.: Alternative macrophage activation andmetabolism. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2011; 6: 275-297 60 Odegaard J.I., Ricardo-Gonzalez R.R., Goforth M.H., Morel C.R.,Subramanian V., Mukundan L., Red Eagle A., Vats D., Brombacher F.,Ferrante A.W., Chawla A.: Macrophage-specific PPARγ controls alternativeactivation and improves insulin resistance. Nature, 2007;447: 1116-1120 61 Oh D.Y., Olefsky J.M.: Wnt fans the flames in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 397-398 62 Ohashi K., Parker J.L., Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Vita J.A., Gokce N.,Pedersen A.A., Kalthoff C., Tullin S., Sams A., Summer R., Walsh K.:Adiponectin promotes macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatoryphenotype. J. Biol. Chem., 2010; 285: 6153-6160 63 Oike Y., Tabata M.: Angiopoietin-like proteins – potential therapeutictargets for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.Circ. J., 2009; 73: 2192-2197 64 Oita R.C., Ferdinando D., Wilson S., Bunce C., Mazzatti D.J.: Visfatininduces oxidative stress in differentiated C2C12 myotubes in anAkt – and MAPK-independent, NFκB-dependent manner. PflugersArch., 2010; 459: 619-630 65 Olefsky J.M., Glass C.K.: Macrophages, inflammation, and insulinresistance. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2010; 72: 219-246 66 Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M., Zahorska-Markiewicz B.: Obesityas inflammatory disease. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 249-257 67 Ost A., Danielsson A., Lidén M., Eriksson U., Nystrom F.H., StrålforsP.: Retinol-binding protein-4 attenuates insulin-induced phosphorylationof IRS1 and ERK1/2 in primary human adipocytes. FASEB J.,2007; 21: 3696-3704 68 Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Ohashi K., Oshima Y., Gokce N., Shibata R.,Akasaki Y., Shimono A., Walsh K.: Sfrp5 is an anti-inflammatory adipokinethat modulates metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 454-457 69 Ouchi N., Kihara S., Funahashi T., Nakamura T., Nishida M., KumadaM., Okamoto Y., Ohashi K., Nagaretani H., Kishida K., NishizawaH., Maeda N., Kobayashi H., Hiraoka H., Matsuzawa Y.: Reciprocal associationof C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream andadipose tissue. Circulation, 2003; 107: 671-674 70 Ouchi N., Parker J.L., Lugus J.J., Walsh K.: Adipokines in inflammationand metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2011; 11: 85-97 71 Pacholczyk M., Ferenc T., Kowalski J.: The metabolic syndrome.Part II: its mechanisms of development and its complications. PostępyHig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 543-558 72 Park H., Li Z., Yang X.O., Chang S.H., Nurieva R., Wang Y.H., WangY., Hood L., Zhu Z., Tian Q., Dong C.: A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells
Google Scholar - 37. Kiguchi N., Maeda T., Kobayashi Y., Fukazawa Y., Kishioka S.: Leptinenhances CC-chemokine ligand expression in cultured murinemacrophage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2009; 384: 311-315 38 Kim J.Y., van de Wall E., Laplante M., Azzara A., Trujillo M.E., HofmannS.M., Schraw T., Durand J.L., Li H., Li G., Jelicks L.A., Mehler M.F.,Hui D.Y., Deshaies Y., Shulman G.I., Schwartz G.J., Scherer P.E.: Obesity–associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion ofadipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest., 2007; 117: 2621-2637 39 Klöting N., Graham T.E., Berndt J., Kralisch S., Kovacs P., Wason C.J.,Fasshauer M., Schön M.R., Stumvoll M., Blüher M., Kahn B.B.: Serumretinol-binding protein is more highly expressed in visceral than insubcutaneous adipose tissue and is a marker of intra-abdominal fatmass. Cell Metab., 2007; 6: 79-87 40 Könner A.C., Brüning J.C.: Toll-like receptors: linking inflammationto metabolism. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2011; 22: 16-23 41 Laudes M.: Role of WNT signalling in the determination of humanmesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J. Mol. Endocrinol.,2011; 46: R65-R72 42 Law I.K., Xu A., Lam K.S., Berger T., Mak T.W., Vanhoutte P.M., LiuJ.T., Sweeney G., Zhou M., Yang B., Wang Y.: Lipocalin-2 deficiencyattenuates insulin resistance associated with aging and obesity. Diabetes,2010; 59: 872-882 43 Ley R.E., Bäckhed F., Turnbaugh P., Lozupone C.A., Knight R.D.,Gordon J.I.: Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2005; 102: 11070-11075 44 Ley R.E., Turnbaugh P.J., Klein S., Gordon J.I.: Microbial ecology:human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006; 444:1022-1023 45 Lin Y., Berg A.H., Iyengar P., Lam T.K., Giacca A., Combs T.P., RajalaM.W., Du X., Rollman B., Li W., Hawkins M., Barzilai N., Rhodes C.J.,Fantus I.G., Brownlee M., Scherer P.E.: The hyperglycemia-inducedinflammatory response in adipocytes: the role of reactive oxygenspecies. J. Biol. Chem., 2005; 280: 4617-4626 46 Liu J., Divoux A., Sun J., Zhang J., Clément K., Glickman J.N., SukhovaG.K., Wolters P.J., Du J., Gorgun C.Z., Doria A., Libby P., Blumberg R.S.,Kahn B.B., Hotamisligil G.S., Shi G.P.: Genetic deficiency and pharmacologicalstabilization of mast cells reduce diet-induced obesity anddiabetes in mice. Nat. Med., 2009; 15: 940-945 47 Liu L.S., Spelleken M., Röhrig K., Hauner H., Eckel J.: Tumor necrosisfactor-alpha acutely inhibits insulin signaling in human adipocytes:implication of the p80 tumor necrosis factor receptor. Diabetes,1998; 47: 515-522 48 Lord G.M., Matarese G., Howard J.K., Baker R.J., Bloom S.R., LechlerR.I.: Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reversesstarvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature, 1998; 394: 897-901 49 Lukens J., Dixit V.D., Kanneganti T.D.: Inflammasome activationin obesity-related inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. Discov.Med., 2011; 12: 65-74 50 Lumeng C.N., Bodzin J.L., Saltiel A.R.: Obesity induces a phenotypicswitch in adipose tissue macrophage polarization. J. Clin. Invest.,2007; 117: 175-184 51 Maeda N., Shimomura I., Kishida K., Nishizawa H., Matsuda M.,Nagaretani H., Furuyama N., Kondo H., Takahashi M., Arita Y., KomuroR., Ouchi N., Kihara S., Tochino Y., Okutomi K. i wsp.: Diet-inducedinsulin resistance in mice lacking adiponectin/ACRP30. Nat. Med.,2002; 8: 731-737 52 Majewska M., Szczepanik M.: The role of Toll-like receptors (TLR)in innate and adaptive immune responses and their function in immuneresponse regulation. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2006; 60: 52-63 53 Martinon F., Chen X., Lee A.H., Glimcher L.H.: TLR activation ofthe transcription factor XBP1 regulates innate immune responses inmacrophages. Nat. Immunol., 2010; 11: 411-418 54 Martín-Romero C., Santos-Alvarez J., Goberna R., Sánchez-MargaletV.: Human leptin enhances activation and proliferation of humancirculating T lymphocytes. Cell. Immunol., 2000; 199: 15-24 55 Maslowski K.M., Vieira A.T., Ng A., Kranich J., Sierro F., Yu D.,Schilter H.C., Rolph M.S., Mackay F., Artis D., Xavier R.J., Teixeira M.M.,Mackay C.R.: Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiotaand chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature, 2009; 461: 1282-1286 56 Murano I., Barbatelli G., Parisani V., Latini C., Muzzonigro G., CastellucciM., Cinti S.: Dead adipocytes, detected as crown-like structures,are prevalent in visceral fat depots of genetically obese mice.J. Lipid Res., 2008; 49: 1562-1568 57 Netea M.G., Joosten L.A., Lewis E., Jensen D.R., Voshol P.J., KullbergB.J., Tack C.J., van Krieken H., Kim S.H., Stalenhoef A.F., van de LooF.A., Verschueren I., Pulawa L., Akira S., Eckel R.H. i wsp.: Deficiencyof interleukin-18 in mice leads to hyperphagia, obesity and insulinresistance. Nat. Med., 2006; 12: 650-656 58 Nishimura S., Manabe I., Nagasaki M., Eto K., Yamashita H.,Ohsugi M., Otsu M., Hara K., Ueki K., Sugiura S., Yoshimura K., KadowakiT., Nagai R.: CD8+ effector T cells contribute to macrophagerecruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. Nat. Med.,2009; 15: 914-920 59 Odegaard J.I., Chawla A.: Alternative macrophage activation andmetabolism. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2011; 6: 275-297 60 Odegaard J.I., Ricardo-Gonzalez R.R., Goforth M.H., Morel C.R.,Subramanian V., Mukundan L., Red Eagle A., Vats D., Brombacher F.,Ferrante A.W., Chawla A.: Macrophage-specific PPARγ controls alternativeactivation and improves insulin resistance. Nature, 2007;447: 1116-1120 61 Oh D.Y., Olefsky J.M.: Wnt fans the flames in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 397-398 62 Ohashi K., Parker J.L., Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Vita J.A., Gokce N.,Pedersen A.A., Kalthoff C., Tullin S., Sams A., Summer R., Walsh K.:Adiponectin promotes macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatoryphenotype. J. Biol. Chem., 2010; 285: 6153-6160 63 Oike Y., Tabata M.: Angiopoietin-like proteins – potential therapeutictargets for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease.Circ. J., 2009; 73: 2192-2197 64 Oita R.C., Ferdinando D., Wilson S., Bunce C., Mazzatti D.J.: Visfatininduces oxidative stress in differentiated C2C12 myotubes in anAkt – and MAPK-independent, NFκB-dependent manner. PflugersArch., 2010; 459: 619-630 65 Olefsky J.M., Glass C.K.: Macrophages, inflammation, and insulinresistance. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 2010; 72: 219-246 66 Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M., Zahorska-Markiewicz B.: Obesityas inflammatory disease. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 249-257 67 Ost A., Danielsson A., Lidén M., Eriksson U., Nystrom F.H., StrålforsP.: Retinol-binding protein-4 attenuates insulin-induced phosphorylationof IRS1 and ERK1/2 in primary human adipocytes. FASEB J.,2007; 21: 3696-3704 68 Ouchi N., Higuchi A., Ohashi K., Oshima Y., Gokce N., Shibata R.,Akasaki Y., Shimono A., Walsh K.: Sfrp5 is an anti-inflammatory adipokinethat modulates metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Science,2010; 329: 454-457 69 Ouchi N., Kihara S., Funahashi T., Nakamura T., Nishida M., KumadaM., Okamoto Y., Ohashi K., Nagaretani H., Kishida K., NishizawaH., Maeda N., Kobayashi H., Hiraoka H., Matsuzawa Y.: Reciprocal associationof C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream andadipose tissue. Circulation, 2003; 107: 671-674 70 Ouchi N., Parker J.L., Lugus J.J., Walsh K.: Adipokines in inflammationand metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2011; 11: 85-97 71 Pacholczyk M., Ferenc T., Kowalski J.: The metabolic syndrome.Part II: its mechanisms of development and its complications. PostępyHig. Med. Dośw., 2008; 62: 543-558 72 Park H., Li Z., Yang X.O., Chang S.H., Nurieva R., Wang Y.H., WangY., Hood L., Zhu Z., Tian Q., Dong C.: A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells
Google Scholar - 37. Kiguchi N., Maeda T., Kobayashi Y., Fukazawa Y., Kishioka S.: Leptinenhances CC-chemokine ligand expression in cultured murinemacrophage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2009; 384: 311-315 38 Kim J.Y., van de Wall E., Laplante M., Azzara A., Trujillo M.E., HofmannS.M., Schraw T., Durand J.L., Li H., Li G., Jelicks L.A., Mehler M.F.,Hui D.Y., Deshaies Y., Shulman G.I., Schwartz G.J., Scherer P.E.: Obesity–associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion ofadipose tissue. J. Clin. Invest., 2007; 117: 2621-2637 39 Klöting N., Graham T.E., Berndt J., Kralisch S., Kovacs P., Wason C.J.,Fasshauer M., Schön M.R., Stumvoll M., Blüher M., Kahn B.B.: Serumretinol-binding protein is more highly expressed in visceral than insubcutaneous adipose tissue and is a marker of intra-abdominal fatmass. Cell Metab., 2007; 6: 79-87 40 Könner A.C., Brüning J.C.: Toll-like receptors: linking inflammationto metabolism. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2011; 22: 16-23 41 Laudes M.: Role of WNT signalling in the determination of humanmesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J. Mol. Endocrinol.,2011; 46: R65-R72 42 Law I.K., Xu A., Lam K.S., Berger T., Mak T.W., Vanhoutte P.M., LiuJ.T., Sweeney G., Zhou M., Yang B., Wang Y.: Lipocalin-2 deficiencyattenuates insulin resistance associated with aging and obesity. Diabetes,2010; 59: 872-882 43 Ley R.E., Bäckhed F., Turnbaugh P., Lozupone C.A., Knight R.D.,Gordon J.I.: Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2005; 102: 11070-11075 44 Ley R.E., Turnbaugh P.J., Klein S., Gordon J.I.: Microbial ecology:human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006; 444:1022-1023 45 Lin Y., Berg A.H., Iyengar P., Lam T.K., Giacca A., Combs T.P., RajalaM.W., Du X., Rollman B., Li W., Hawkins M., Barzilai N., Rhodes C.J.,Fantus I.G., Brownlee M., Scherer P.E.: The hyperglycemia-inducedinflammatory response in adipocytes: the role of reactive oxygenspecies. J. Biol. Chem., 2005; 280: 4617-4626 46 Liu J., Divoux A., Sun J., Zhang J., Clément K., Glickman J.N., SukhovaG.K., Wolters P.J., Du J., Gorgun C.Z., Doria A., Libby P., Blumberg R.S.,Kahn B.B., Hotamisligil G.S., Shi G.P.: Genetic deficiency and pharmacologicalstabilization of mast cells reduce diet-induced obesity anddiabetes in mice. Nat. Med., 2009; 15: 940-945 47 Liu L.S., Spelleken M., Röhrig K., Hauner H., Eckel J.: Tumor necrosisfactor-alpha acutely inhibits insulin signaling in human adipocytes:implication of the p80 tumor necrosis factor receptor. Diabetes,1998; 47: 515-522 48 Lord G.M., Matarese G., Howard J.K., Baker R.J., Bloom S.R., LechlerR.I.: Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reversesstarvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature, 1998; 394: 897-901 49 Lukens J., Dixit V.D., Kanneganti T.D.: Inflammasome activationin obesity-related inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. 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Google Scholar - 113. Yang Q., Graham T.E., Mody N., Preitner F., Peroni O.D., ZabolotnyJ.M., Kotani K., Quadro L., Kahn B.B.: Serum retinol binding protein 4contributes to insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Nature,2005; 436: 356-362
Google Scholar - 113. Yang Q., Graham T.E., Mody N., Preitner F., Peroni O.D., ZabolotnyJ.M., Kotani K., Quadro L., Kahn B.B.: Serum retinol binding protein 4contributes to insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Nature,2005; 436: 356-362
Google Scholar - 113. Yang Q., Graham T.E., Mody N., Preitner F., Peroni O.D., ZabolotnyJ.M., Kotani K., Quadro L., Kahn B.B.: Serum retinol binding protein 4contributes to insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Nature,2005; 436: 356-362
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